American history

Early nationhood (1783–1820)

Following the American Revolution, the United States faced potential military conflict on the high seas as well as on the frontiers. In the Treaty of Paris, the British had ceded the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the United States, without consulting the Native Americans who lived there.

Because many of the tribes had fought as allies of the British, the United States compelled the Indians to sign away lands in postwar treaties, and began dividing up these lands for settlement.

This provoked a war in the Northwest Territory in which the U.S. suffered two major defeats before President Washington dispatched a newly trained army to the region, which decisively defeated the Indian confederacy in 1795.

1. The Quasi War

When revolutionary France declared war on Great Britain in 1793, the United States sought to remain neutral, but the Jay Treaty, which was favorable to Great Britain, led to a "Quasi-War" at sea with France from 1798 to 1801. In the Caribbean the United States won a string of victories including the capture of 3 French frigates and 82 privateers. George Washington was called out of retirement to head a "provisional army" in case of invasion by France, but President John Adams managed to negotiate a truce.

2. The First Barbary War

Later, in 1801, the United States and Tripoli fought the First Barbary War, which transpired when President Jefferson refused to pay further tribute to Tripoli. A naval expedition was dispatched to Tripoli harbor in order to blockade the city. Coastal vessels were burned near the harbor leading to the future U.S. Marine anthem to include to the shores of Tripoli. When the powerful U.S.S. Philadelphia was captured by the Barbary pirates in 1803 Lieutenant Stephen Decatur lead a raid which successfully burned the ship under Tripoli's nose. On August 3, 1803 American ships entered Tripoli harbor leading to a "gunboat battle" and the shelling of Tripoli several times. An effort to send a boat bomb to destroy Tripolitan ships ended in failure when the Intrepid carrying explosives blew up prematurely, killing everyone aboard. In 1805 William Eaton led a small Arab army from Egypt to invade Western Tripoli and captured Derna, causing Tripoli to agree to peace and the ransom of all prisoners they held.

3. The War of 1812

When Great Britain and France went to war again in 1803 with renewed vigor, the United States sought to remain neutral while pursuing overseas trade. This proved difficult, and the United States finally declared war on Great Britain—the War of 1812. Not hopeful of defeating the Royal Navy at sea, the U.S. attacked the Empire by invading Canada. This invasion dovetailed with an ongoing pan-tribal frontier resistance headed by the Native American leader Tecumseh. Although the War of 1812 ended as a stalemate between the United States and Great Britain in 1815, the frontier war essentially continued into 1818 with the First Seminole War.

4. The Second Barbary War

After the War of 1812 came the Second Barbary War (1815), the Seminole Wars, the Black Hawk War, and the era of Indian Removal.